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Foreign relations of Turkmenistan

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Politics of Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan's declaration of "permanent neutrality" was formally recognized by the United Nations in 1995. Former President Niyazov stated that the neutrality would prevent Turkmenistan from participating in multi-national defense organizations, but allows military assistance. Its neutral foreign policy has an important place in the country's constitution. Although the Government of Turkmenistan claims to favour trade with and export to the United States, and Turkey, its single largest commercial partner is China, which buys the vast bulk of Turkmen natural gas via the Central Asia–China gas pipeline. Turkmenistan has significant commercial relationships with Russia and Iran and growing cross-border trade with Afghanistan. The Government of Turkmenistan often appears to use the conflicting interests of these regional powers as a means to extract concessions, especially on energy issues.

International disputes

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Signing of the Caspian Sea convention in 2018 brought only partial resolution of boundary disputes in the Caspian. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan have disputes over water-sharing. Turkmenistan shares a long border with Afghanistan, a principal producer of heroin and opium. As a result, a large volume of narcotics are trafficked through Turkmenistan on their way to lucrative markets in Europe and Russia.[1]

Natural resources

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Main article: Economy of Turkmenistan § Natural gas

Turkmenistan is rich in natural gas, and currently sells most of its gas to China. Turkmenistan unilaterally cut off exports of pipeline natural gas to Iran in 2017 over a payment arrears dispute. Russia ceased buying gas from Turkmenistan in 2016, but resumed small purchases of pipeline gas in 2019. Afghanistan buys liquid petroleum gas, shipped by rail to Ymamnazar and Torghundi for onward delivery by truck. Pakistan provides Turkmenistan warm water as well as Iran and Russia.

Turkmenistan is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest.[2]

Organisations

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Turkmenistan is a member of the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the Economic Cooperation Organization, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Islamic Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the International Organization of Turkic Culture.

Turkmenistan maintains permanent representatives to the United Nations offices in New York City, Vienna, and Geneva.

The United Nations maintains a permanent representation staffed by a resident coordinator along with representatives of some UN agencies in Ashgabat. The Asian Development Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and European Union have missions in Ashgabat, as well.

Diplomatic relations

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List of countries which Turkmenistan maintains diplomatic relations with:[3]

# Country Date
1  China 6 January 1992
2  North Korea 10 January 1992
3  Denmark 21 January 1992
4  United Kingdom 23 January 1992
5  South Korea 7 February 1992
6  Iran 18 February 1992
7  Afghanistan 21 February 1992
8  Saudi Arabia 22 February 1992
9  Bangladesh 28 February 1992
10  Turkey 29 February 1992
11  France 6 March 1992
12  Germany 6 March 1992
13  Spain 19 March 1992
14  Cuba 23 March 1992
15  Syria 26 March 1992
16  Mexico 27 March 1992
17  Russia 8 April 1992
18  Sweden 10 April 1992
19  United States 10 April 1992
20  Canada 17 April 1992
–  State of Palestine 17 April 1992
21  India 20 April 1992
22  Japan 22 April 1992
23  Mongolia 23 April 1992
24  Pakistan 9 May 1992
25  Hungary 11 May 1992
26  South Africa 11 May 1992
27  Australia 14 May 1992
28  Malaysia 17 May 1992
29  Bulgaria 20 May 1992
30  Netherlands 20 May 1992
31  Oman 29 May 1992
32  Norway 8 June 1992
33  Azerbaijan 9 June 1992
34  Italy 9 June 1992
35  Finland 10 June 1992
36  Greece 10 June 1992
37  Thailand 6 July 1992
38   Switzerland 13 July 1992
39  Georgia 16 July 1992
40  Lithuania 21 July 1992
41  Romania 21 July 1992
42  Vietnam 29 July 1992
43  Portugal 13 August 1992
44  New Zealand 8 September 1992
45  Ghana 17 September 1992
46  Argentina 24 September 1992
47  Maldives 25 September 1992
48  Morocco 25 September 1992
49  Poland 29 September 1992
50  Luxembourg 2 October 1992
51  Kazakhstan 5 October 1992
52  Kyrgyzstan 5 October 1992
53  Moldova 5 October 1992
54  Armenia 9 October 1992
55  Ukraine 10 October 1992
56  Austria 16 October 1992
57  Mali 16 November 1992
58  Tunisia 30 November 1992
59  Equatorial Guinea 8 December 1992
60  Libya 8 December 1992
61  Indonesia 10 December 1992
62  Slovakia 1 January 1993
63  Latvia 13 January 1993
64  Belarus 21 January 1993
65  Tajikistan 27 January 1993
66  Czech Republic 31 January 1993
67  Belgium 1 February 1993
68  Egypt 3 February 1993
69  Uzbekistan 7 February 1993
70  Jordan 18 February 1993
71  Malta 25 February 1993
72  Lebanon 6 May 1993
73  Philippines 23 July 1993
74  Israel 8 October 1993
75  Slovenia 11 November 1993
76  Zambia 2 December 1993
77  Laos 4 February 1994
78  Albania 24 March 1994
79  Chile 27 July 1994
80  Estonia 26 August 1994
81  Algeria 21 September 1994
82  Chad 4 October 1994
83  Kuwait 13 January 1995
84  Yemen 27 February 1995
85  Cambodia 6 April 1995
86  United Arab Emirates 10 October 1995
87  Madagascar 1 December 1995
88  Bahrain 15 December 1995
89  Brazil 3 April 1996
90  Sri Lanka 18 April 1996
91  Venezuela 30 April 1996
92  Bosnia and Herzegovina 17 June 1996
93  North Macedonia 21 June 1996
94  Croatia 2 July 1996
95  Bolivia 9 July 1996
–  Holy See 10 July 1996
96  Jamaica 16 July 1996
97  Uruguay 16 July 1996
98  Guatemala 22 August 1996
99  Serbia 26 August 1996
100  Colombia 27 August 1996
101  Nicaragua 29 August 1996
102  Belize 11 September 1996
103  Singapore 12 September 1996
104  Marshall Islands 8 October 1996
105  Mozambique 22 November 1996
106  Qatar 22 November 1996
107  Iceland 13 February 1997
108  Peru 7 May 1997
109  Ecuador 11 June 1997
110  Guyana 11 June 1997
111  Angola 18 June 1997
112  Mauritius 2 July 1997
113  Malawi 20 February 1998
114  Brunei 22 February 1999
115  Zimbabwe 22 March 1999
116  El Salvador 20 May 1999
117  Suriname 25 June 1999
118  Uganda 5 August 1999
119  Myanmar 26 August 1999
120    Nepal 17 October 2005
121  Ireland 16 October 2007
–  Sovereign Military Order of Malta 30 October 2007
122  Cyprus 13 November 2007
123  Andorra 17 April 2008
124  Montenegro 26 November 2008
125  Dominican Republic 9 February 2009
126  Iraq 31 July 2009
127  South Sudan 17 August 2012
128  Gambia 8 December 2012
129  Fiji 2 May 2014
130  Senegal 25 September 2014
131  Togo 25 September 2014
132  Panama 24 July 2015
133  Sudan 17 August 2015
134  Monaco 27 August 2015
135  Ethiopia 11 November 2015
136  Burundi 12 December 2015
137  Burkina Faso 12 March 2016
138  Bahamas 7 October 2016
139  Dominica 13 October 2016
140  Saint Kitts and Nevis 31 May 2017
141  Djibouti 4 July 2017
142  Paraguay 28 July 2017
143  Benin 26 July 2018
144  Somalia 4 November 2019
145  Grenada 13 February 2020
146  Sierra Leone 15 June 2020
147  Republic of the Congo 21 May 2021
148  Niger 22 June 2021
149  Kenya 15 March 2023
150  Trinidad and Tobago 21 June 2023
151  Seychelles 13 August 2024

Bilateral relations

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Afghanistan 21 February 1992

See Afghanistan–Turkmenistan relations

Afghanistan has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate in Mary. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Kabul plus consulates in Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif.[4][5] The rise of India as an economic giant and its increasing energy needs make Turkmenistan and Central Asia energy markets of choice for that country and also China. The Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline (TAPI) has been one of the most important regional initiatives to be undertaken by these countries. The agreement to build the pipeline to transport Turkmen gas to Afghanistan and Pakistan and beyond to India was signed in 2010. In addition, Afghanistan depends on Turkmenistan for meeting a large part of the country's electricity needs. At present, Afghanistan imports more than 320 million kilowatt hours of electricity every year from Turkmenistan.

In 2011, Turkmenistan agreed to build a 150-km extension to a railway line to connect the rail line to Serhetabat to Andkhoy in Faryab province, Afghanistan. In February 2018, the existing rail line between Serhetabat and Torghundi in Afghanistan was restored to service.[6][7] This line is planned to be extended to Herat, where it could potentially connect to a rail line under construction from Khaf, Iran.[8] The line to Andkhoy went into service in January 2021.

In 2013, work began on a link from Kerki via Ymamnazar on the Turkmen-Afghan border to Aqina in Andkhoy District. This link was opened in November 2016.[9] It was extended 38 km to Andkhoy in January 2021,[10] and is intended eventually to become part of a railway corridor through northern Afghanistan, linking it via Sherkhan Bandar, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kunduz to Tajikistan.

As of 1 April 2011, there were 44 enterprises with Afghan assets in Turkmenistan.

Though Turkmenistan has not recognized the Taliban's state, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, it has facilitated the Taliban's appointment of diplomats to the Afghan Embassy in Ashgabat. The current chargé d'affaires is Fazal Muhammad Sabir, appointed in March 2022.[11][12][13]

 Albania 24 March 1994

Both countries established diplomatic relations on March 24, 1994.[14]

 Armenia 9 October 1992 See Armenia–Turkmenistan relations
 Austria 16 October 1992 See Austria–Turkmenistan relations

Turkmenistan has an embassy in Vienna, which doubles as the permanent mission to United Nations agencies in Vienna.

 Azerbaijan 9 June 1992 See Azerbaijan–Turkmenistan relations

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Despite close linguistic affinities (Turkmen and Azerbaijani are about 65 percent mutually intelligible), Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan suffer from a strained relationship, in part because Turkmenistan is majority Sunni and Azerbaijan is majority Shi'a. Nonetheless the two countries have begun to cooperate more in commercial spheres, most notably with signing of a memorandum in 2020 on joint exploitation of the cross-boundary Serdar oil field in the Caspian.

 Belarus 21 January 1993 See Belarus–Turkmenistan relations
  • Formal relations were established in 1993
  • Belarus has an embassy in Ashgabat.
  • Turkmenistan has an embassy in Minsk.

Roughly 12,000 to 13,000 Turkmen university students are matriculated annually in Belarusian institutions of higher education.

 Belize 11 September 1996

The countries established diplomatic relations on 11 September 1996.[15]

 Cambodia 6 April 1995

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 April 1995.

 China 6 January 1992 See China-Turkmenistan relations

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. The relationship is dominated by China's position as the largest importer by far of natural gas from Turkmenistan, making China Turkmenistan's largest source of foreign exchange earnings. China offers free higher education to several hundred Turkmen students each year.

 Croatia 2 July 1996 See Croatia–Turkmenistan relations[15]
 Djibouti 4 July 2017

The countries established diplomatic relations on July 4, 2017.[14]

 Dominica 13 October 2016

Both countries established diplomatic relations on October 13, 2016.[16]

 France 6 March 1992 See France–Turkmenistan relations

Diplomatic relations were established with the March 6, 1992 signing of the Protocol. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Paris and France has an embassy in Ashgabat. The French construction company Bouygues, the second-largest in Turkmenistan, has signed many construction contracts. The French company Thales Alenia Space constructed the first space satellite TürkmenÄlem 52°E / MonacoSAT.

 Georgia 8 July 1992

Georgia has an embassy in Ashgabat, and Turkmenistan has an embassy in Tbilisi.[5][4][17]

 Germany 6 March 1992

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Turkmenistan have a consulate in Frankfurt am Main. Two German banks, Deutsche Bank and Commerzbank, have offices in Ashgabat, since much of Turkmenistan's foreign exchange accounts are held in those two German banks. Such German firms as Siemens and Claas have made significant sales of medical and agricultural equipment, respectively, to Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan Air offers scheduled service to Frankfurt am Main.

 Guyana 11 June 1997

Both countries established diplomatic relations on June 11, 1997.[14]

 Holy See 10 July 1996

The Vatican maintains a nunciature in Ashgabat, although the nuncio is resident in Ankara. The Turkmen ambassador in Rome is multiple-accredited, including to the Holy See.

 Iceland 13 February 1997

Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 13, 1997.[14]

 India 20 April 1992 See India-Turkmenistan relations

India and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals. Turkmenistan Airlines used to operate flights between Ashgabat and both New Delhi and Amritsar, which connect in Ashgabat to flights to London and Birmingham. India is a destination for medical tourism by middle-class Turkmen. To some degree the relationship is framed by Turkmenistan's desire to export natural gas to India via the Turkmenistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan–India Pipeline.

 Iran 18 February 1992 See Iran–Turkmenistan relations

Iran and Turkmenistan have had relations since Turkmenistan's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Iran has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate in Mary. Turkmenistan has an embassy in Teheran and a consulate in Mashhad.[5] Iran was the second nation to recognize Turkmenistan as an independent nation.[4] Since then, the two countries have cooperated in the economic, infrastructure, and energy sectors. The $139 million Korpeje-Kurt Kui gas pipeline in western Turkmenistan and the $167 million Dostluk ("friendship" in Turkmen) Dam in the south of the country were built through a joint venture. The Caspian Sea territorial boundaries are a cause of tension between the two. Iran's Islamic theocracy and Turkmenistan's secular dictatorship also prevent the development of a closer friendship.

 Israel 8 October 1993

Israel has an embassy in Ashgabat.

 Italy 9 June 1992

Italy and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals. The Turkmen ambassador in Rome is also accredited to the United Nations agencies there, and to the Holy See. The relationship is dominated by the presence of Italian petroleum firm Eni, which operates oil wells in the Caspian Sea under a production sharing agreement.

 Japan 22 April 1992

Diplomatic relations between Japan and Turkmenistan were established in April 1992. Japan opened an embassy at Ashgabat in January 2005, and Turkmenistan opened an embassy in Tokyo in May 2013.[18] Japan is heavily involved in operation of the Oguz Han Engineering Technology University in Ashgabat. The Japan Bank for International Cooperation has financed several major industrial projects in Turkmenistan, including plants constructed with participation of Kawasaki and Sumitomo.

 Kazakhstan 5 October 1992 See Kazakhstan–Turkmenistan relations
  • Kazakhstan has an embassy in Ashgabat and a consulate in Turkmenbashy.
  • Turkmenistan has an embassy in Astana and a consulate in Aktau.
  • During a meeting in October 2023, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan released a statement affirming their strategic partnership and cooperation. Kazakh Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Murat Nurtleu and Turkmen Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Rashid Meredov issued the statement during a meeting in Ashgabat on 30 October 2023.[19]
 Kyrgyzstan 5 October 1992 See Kyrgyzstan–Turkmenistan relations

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals.

 Libya 8 December 1992

Libya maintains an economic and commercial office rather than an embassy in Ashgabat.

 Malaysia 17 May 1992 See Malaysia-Turkmenistan relations

Turkmen-Malaysian relations mainly revolve around the work of the Malaysian state petroleum corporation, Petronas, which extracts petroleum condensate in the Caspian Sea. Turkmenistan Airlines offers scheduled service between Ashgabat and Kuala Lumpur.

 Mexico 27 March 1992
  • Mexico is accredited to Turkmenistan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.
  • Turkmenistan is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
 Netherlands
  • Netherlands is represented in Turkmenistan through its embassy in Astana, Kazakhstan.
  • Turkmenistan is represented in Netherlands through its embassy in Brussels, Belgium.
 North Macedonia 21 June 1996

The countries established diplomatic relations on June 21, 1996.[14]

 Pakistan 10 May 1992 See Pakistan–Turkmenistan relations
  • Formal relations were established on May 10, 1992. The countries have embassies in each other's capitals.
  • To celebrate the 10th anniversary of Turkmenistan's independence in 2001 Pakistan issued stamps bearing the flag of Turkmenistan.[20]
 Palestine 17 April 1992
  • Palestine has an embassy in Ashgabat.
 Poland 29 September 1992 See Poland–Turkmenistan relations
  • Poland is represented in Turkmenistan through its embassy in Baku, Azerbaijan.
  • Turkmenistan is represented in Poland through its embassy in Berlin, Germany.
 Qatar 22 November 1996

Qatar has an embassy in Ashgabat. Turkmenistan has no permanent diplomatic representation in Doha

 Romania 21 July 1992

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals. Romania's primary interest is development of the Lapis Lazuli corridor, which would use Romanian seaports on the Black Sea.

 Russia 8 April 1992 See Russia–Turkmenistan relations
 Saudi Arabia 22 February 1992[15]

Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Ashgabat, and Turkmenistan has an embassy in Riyadh.

 South Korea 7 February 1992

Diplomatic relations were established on February 7, 1992. The countries have embassies in each other's capitals.[4][5] South Korean firms such as Hyundai and LG have won major contracts for building industrial plants.

 Spain 19 March 1992
  • Spain is accredited to Turkmenistan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
  • Turkmenistan is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
 Suriname 25 June 1999

The countries established diplomatic relations on June 25, 1999.[15]

 Sweden 10 April 1992[15] Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 10, 1992.
  Switzerland 13 July 1992

Turkmenistan maintains a diplomatic mission in Geneva, which doubles as its embassy to Switzerland and is permanent representative to United Nations agencies in Geneva as well as to the World Trade Organization. The Swiss ambassador in Baku is accredited to Turkmenistan.

 Tajikistan 27 January 1993[15]

The two countries have embassies in each other's capitals.

 Turkey 29 February 1992[23][15] See Turkey–Turkmenistan relations
 Ukraine 10 October 1992

Ukraine and Turkmenistan have embassies in each other's capitals.[4][5] Ukrainian companies have been involved in major construction projects, including the rail and automobile bridges across the Amu Darya at Türkmenabat.

 United Arab Emirates 10 October 1995

The countries have embassies in each other's capitals. In addition, Turkmenistan has a consulate in Dubai. The Emirates are a major entrepot for imports of foodstuffs and consumer items into Turkmenistan. In addition, one of three oil-drilling concessions in the Caspian Sea is held by Dragon Oil, which is wholly owned by the Emirates National Oil Company. The international office of Turkmenistan's TAPI Pipeline Company is in Dubai.

 United Kingdom 23 January 1992 See Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

The UK established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 23 January 1992.

  • Turkmenistan maintains an embassy in London.
  • The UK is accredited to Turkmenistan through its embassy in Ashgabat.[25]

Both countries share common membership of the OSCE. Bilaterally the two countries have a Development Partnership,[26] and an Investment Agreement.[27]

 United States 10 April 1992 See Turkmenistan–United States relations

The United States and Turkmenistan continue to disagree about the latter country's path toward democratic and economic reform. The United States has publicly advocated industrial and agricultural privatization, market liberalization, and fiscal reform, as well as legal and regulatory reforms to open up the economy to foreign trade and investment, as the best way to achieve prosperity and true independence and sovereignty.

 Uzbekistan 7 February 1993 See Turkmenistan–Uzbekistan relations
  • Turkmenistan has an embassy in Tashkent.
  • Uzbekistan has an embassy in Ashgabat.
 Venezuela 30 April 1996[15]
  • Venezuela briefly opened an embassy in Ashgabat following a state visit by Hugo Chávez, but the staff returned to Teheran after six months. A chancery is located in Ashgabat, but the bilateral relationship is managed by the Venezuelan embassy in Iran.
 Zimbabwe 22 March 1999

Both countries established diplomatic relations on March 22, 1999.[14]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Illicit Drug Trends in Central Asia (PDF) (Report). Regional Office for Central Asia: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. April 2008. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
  2. ^ "INOGATE". Archived from the original on 18 November 2019. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  3. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan (25 January 2017). "States With Which Turkmenistan Established Diplomatic Relations". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  4. ^ a b c d e f "DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF FOREIGN STATES AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ACCREDITED IN TURKMENISTAN". Archived from the original on 2021-05-07. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  5. ^ a b c d e f "DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS AND CONSULAR OFFICES OF TURKMENISTAN ABROAD". Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  6. ^ "TRAIN SERVICE OPENS ON NEW TURKMEN-AFGHAN RAILWAY: SERHETABAT–TORGHUNDI". Turkmenistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. February 24, 2018. Archived from the original on March 25, 2022. Retrieved April 17, 2021.
  7. ^ "Torghundi and the railway from Turkmenistan". Andrew Grantham. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  8. ^ Cuenca, Oliver (December 9, 2020). "Iran – Afghanistan railway ready for traffic". International Railway Journal. Archived from the original on April 17, 2021. Retrieved April 17, 2021.
  9. ^ Salehai, Zarghona (28 November 2016). "Afghan-Turkmenistan railroad inaugurated". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  10. ^ "Туркменский и афганский лидеры запустили ж/д путь Акина-Андхой и ЛЭП Керки-Шиберган" (in Russian). SNG Today. 14 January 2021. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  11. ^ "Turkmenistan: Berdymukhamedov passes the mantle (and phone)". Eurasianet. 22 March 2022. Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  12. ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (19 March 2022). "Appointed by IEA MFA, Mr. Mohammad Fazel Saber was introduced in a ceremony as chargé d'affaires to his colleagues at the Afghan Embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, yesterday". Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  13. ^ "IEA introduces caretaker ambassador to Turkmenistan". Ariana News. 17 March 2022. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
  14. ^ a b c d e f "States with Which Turkmenistan Established Diplomatic Relations". Archived from the original on 2019-05-08. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i "STATES WITH WHICH TURKMENISTAN ESTABLISHED DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS". Archived from the original on 2019-05-08. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
  16. ^ "Turkmenistan established diplomatic relations with the Commonwealth of Dominica". Archived from the original on 2016-11-12. Retrieved 2016-12-13.
  17. ^ "Relations between Georgia and Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  18. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) of Japan". Archived from the original on 2015-11-03. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
  19. ^ Ualikhanova, A. (31 October 2023), "Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan Affirm Commitment to Strengthen Strategic Partnership", Astana Times, retrieved 3 May 2024
  20. ^ "10th Anniversary of Independence of Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  21. ^ Russian Embassy in Turkmenistan Archived 2009-06-24 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
  22. ^ Turkmenistan Embassy in Russia Archived 2015-03-30 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
  23. ^ a b "Relations between Turkey and Turkmenistan". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  24. ^ "Economic Relations between Turkey and Turkmenistan". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  25. ^ "British Embassy Ashgabat". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  26. ^ Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (17 July 2023). "Country and regional development partnership summaries". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2024.
  27. ^ "Turkmenistan - United Kingdom BIT (1995)". UN Trade and Development. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
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